Journal of Soil and Plant Interactions

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This experiment was conducted to determine the effect of salinity and nitrogen on growth and yield of tomato and concentration and total uptake of some nutrients in different parts of plant in hydroponics culture. Nitrogen (N) was used at 0, 1.5 and 3% levels as NH4Cl and NH4H2PO4 and salinity consisted of 0, 30 and 60 mM as NaCl and CaCl2 (2:1 w/w). A completely randomized design experiment was carried out under greenhouse conditions. Results showed that fruit fresh weight increased with N application but salinity treatment decreased fruit yield. Maximum fresh weight was observed in treatment with 3% N and without any salinity application, whereas minimum fresh weight was obtained with 30 mM salinity and without any N application. Application of 30 and 60 mM salinity increased fruit phosphorous concentration significantly (P<0.05), but it did not affect shoot and fruit concentration. Nitrogen application increased fruit, shoot and root phosphorous concentration significantly. Root, shoot and fruit N uptake increased with N application (without salinity) whereas at high salinity level, increase in N uptake was lower than at low salinity level. Salinity increase without N decreased fruit phosphorous and manganese uptake, root copper, zinc and manganese concentration and shoot manganese uptake. Furthermore, results showed that at low salinity level, N application can alleviate the negative effects of salinity on growth and yield of plant.

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Soil salinity may cause nutrients imbalance in plants. Addition of some nutrients to saline soils may alleviate negative effects of salinity on plant growth and yield. In order to evaluate the effect of salinity and phosphorus on growth and chemical composition of two varieties of spinach (Khardar and Virofly Duch) a greenhouse experiment was carried out in a factorial arrangement 2×3×2 in a completely randomized design with three replications. Treatments consisted of three levels of salinity (0.6, 3.8 and 8 dS/m as NaCl) and two levels of phosphorus (40 and 80 mg per kg soil as mono-calcium phosphate). Results indicated that concentration and total uptake of sodium (Na), chloride (Cl) and magnesium (Mg) were higher in Khardar than in Virofly however, concentration and total uptake of nitrogen (N), potassium (K), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn) and copper (Cu) were lower than in Virofly. Concentration and total uptake of calcium (Ca) and phosphorus (P) were similar in two varieties of spinach. Application of 80 mg P increased dry weight of Khardar but had no significant effect on dry weight of Virofly. Addition of P, significantly increased total uptake of N, P, Ca, Mg, Zn, Cu, Na and Cl in Khardar, and total uptake of P and Cu in Virofly. Phosphorus decreased uptake of N, Ca, Mg, Na and Cl in Virofly. Application of NaCl significantly increased fresh weight of both varieties of spinach and dry weight of Virofly. Salinity decreased uptake of N in Khardar but increased it in Virofly. In both spinach varieties, salinity decreased uptake of Ca and Mg, but increased uptake of Zn, Na and Cl. Both spinach varieties are considered relatively salt-tolerant plants, due to the fact that NaCl improved their growth.

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In order to investigate the effect of different levels of Cu and Zn on absorption of micronutrient (Cu, Zn, Fe and Mn) and macronutrient (P) in root and shoot Satureja hortensis, an experiment was conducted as factorial based on complete randomized design with three replications. The treatments consisted of three levels of Cu (0, 5 and 25 mg/kg CuSO4) and three levels of Zn (0, 10 and 50 mg/kg ZnSO4) and their combination. The application of adequacy levels of Zn (10 mg Zn kg-1) increased the concentration of of Zn, Cu and Mn of shoots by 85.36 %, 53.20% and 66.08%, respectively. When 50 mg Zn kg-1was applied, the concentrations of Cu, Fe and Mn were decreased by 8.38%, 12.09% and 51.99%, respectively. Application of adequate levels of copper (5 mg Cu.kg-1) increased the concentrations of Cu, Zn and Mn, by 118.5%, 19.76% and 63.21%, respectively. The excess level of copper (25 mg Cu.kg-1) decreased the concentrations of Cu (15.2%) and Fe (7.99%) in the shoots, while increased Mn content (201.89 %). Amounts of Cu and Zn were not detected in the essential oil. In general, it can be concluded that a negative interaction occurred between copper, zinc and iron, when higher Cu and Zn concentrations were applied. Also, due to negligible transport of elements into the essential oil, cultivatin of S. hortensis in the soil with moderate pollution could be considered.

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In order to investigate the effects of mycorrhizal symbiosis on some soil hydraulic properties and nutrients uptake by spring barley, a greenhouse experiment was conducted based on a completely randomized blocks design with four replications, using two mycorrhizl fungi including Glomus intraradices (GI) and Glomus etunicatum (GE) and non-mycorrhizal (control) treatments, in an alkaline coarse-textured soil. Results showed that GE and GI significantly increased (P< 0.01) field capacity (FC) water content by 24.7 and 12.6%, permanent wilting point (PWP) water content by 20.1 and 11.1%, available water capacity (AWC) by 27.1 and 13.3%, micropores by 14.1 and 5%, mesopores by 27.8 and 20.8% and decreased macropores by 17.3 and 9.5% and saturated hydraulic conductivity by 88.2 and 68.8% relative to the control, respectively. Also, GE and GI fungi significantly increased (P< 0.01) uptake of phosphorus in barely seeds by 44.1 and 20.3% and in stem by 181 and 50.6% and potassium in seeds by 290.8 and 167.9%, respectively. It is concluded that mycorrhizal symbiosis, as a biological and sustainable method, improved hydraulic and chemical quality of the alkaline coarse-textured soil.

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Iron (Fe) and zinc (Zn) deficiency has been known as a key factor in limiting crop production in calcareous soils of arid and semi-arid regions. Since the components of organic matter can change Fe and Zn availability, this study was conducted to investigate the effects of humic treatments including humic acid (HA), fulvic acid (FA), vermicompost (Verm), HA+FA and HA+FA+Verm and mycorhiza inoculation on some growth characteristics of soybean and Fe and Zn uptake under greenhouse conditions. Results showed that significant differences among humic substances and mycorrhiza were recorded for soybean growth and Fe and Zn uptake. The response of soybean plants to humic substances was different. The largest increases in plant height, shoot fresh weight, shoot dry weight, root fresh weight and root dry weight were found in humic acid amended soil, being 0.9 fold, 2.37 fold, 6.11 fold, 3.54 fold and 5.5 fold, respectively, as compared to the control. Mycorrhiza also improved soybean growth characteristics. Humic treatments (with an exception for humic acid and vermicompost) increased Fe and Zn content of soybean aerial parts. The highest Fe content (657.3 mg/kg) and Zn content (87.4 mg/kg) was measured in plants treated with fulvic acid. Mycorrhizal inoculation resulted in 10% increase in Fe and 64% in Zn content of soybean as compared to control plants. The results of this research revealed that application of humic acid and mycorrhiza can improve soybean growth by increasing the uptake of Fe and Zn.

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The use of organic materials is increasing in agriculture and industrial products due to their less side effects than chemical materials. In order to study the effect of pine wood vinegar (Pyroligneous acid) on growth and physiological traits of basil, two experiments were designed and conducted in 2014, based on a completely randomized design with 6 treatments (0, 1250, 2000, 2500, 3333 and 5000 mg/L) and 4 replications. The first experiment was conducted in the laboratory in order to study the wood vinegar priming on basil seeds and the second experiment was performed in the Research Greenhouse of College of Agriculture, Isfahan University of Technology. Application of 1250 mg/L wood vinegar increased germination percentage of the basil seeds and 2500 mg/L treatment speeded up the germination process. In the second experiment, maximum volume and length of roots were observed in the 3333 mg/L treatment and the highest root surface was measured in the 5000 mg/L treatment. Nitrogen concentration in the 3333 mg/L treatment, potassium concentration in the 5000 mg/L treatment, and calcium and iron concentrations in the 1250 mg/L treatment were at the highest level compared to other treatments. Chlorophyll fluorescence, SPAD, ion leakage and chlorophyll a content showed the highest levels in the 3333 mg/L treatment. Based on the results of the second experiment, most growth parameters of the basil were at the highest level by application of 3333 mg/L pine wood vinegar. Therefore, this concentration of pine wood vinegar can be recommended.

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Due to ever increasing greenhouse cultures, using organic fertilizers for enhancing healthy products is necessary. To investigate the effect of two types of these fertilizers on tomato, in a factorial experiment, based on completely randomized design with 3 replications, with 2 pots in each replication, 0 g/kg humic acid (Humic0) and 1 g/kg (Humic1) and amino acid at 3 levels of 0 g/kg (Amin0), 1 g/kg (Amin1) and 2 g/kg (Amin2), were fertigated once every 10-day. Fruit characteristics at first and second harvests in green, orange, pink and red phases were studied. Results showed that fruit dry weight was less affected by humic acid and amino acid than fruit fresh weight, especially in green and orange phases. In pink and red phases, in the first harvest, fruit dry weight was increased with amino1 and amino2, in both concentrations of humic acid, as compared with control. Amin1 and humic1 had the highest total soluble solids. Fruit phosphorus concentration in humic1 and amin2 was the highest. Potassium concentrations in amino1 and amino2 in both humic acid concentrations were higher than control. Nitrogen concentration in humic1 and amin2 was increased. Therefore, it is recommended that greater amount of these fertilizers or more application times, be used in nutrient solution of tomato at fruit ripening stage and first harvest. Since using these fertilizers is more effective on fresh weight than on dry weight, it is recommended to use them for fresh tomato consumption than for processing tomato for paste.

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Abstract
Phosphorus deficiency and drought stress are limiting factors in wheat yield. Drought stress has different effects on the uptake, utilization and use efficiency of soil phosphorus in wheat cultivars. The purpose of this study is to investigate the response of growth and development, uptake and efficiency of phosphorus in Sirvan and Sivand wheat cultivars at three moisture stress levels of 50, 70 and 95% of soil field capacity (FC) and two phosphorus levels of 0 and 25 mg kg^-1. The results showed that addition of phosphorus increased shoot dry weight, phosphorus utilization efficiency, root length and area, and soluble sugars by 42, 61, 84, 47, and 66%, respectively, and decreased electrolyte leakage by 64% under stress conditions of 50%FC. Besides, the phosphorus application of 25 mg kg^-1 under drought stress conditions of 50%FC increased the shoot dry weight of the Sirvan variety by 75% compared to the Sivand variety. This increase can be due to the effect of phosphorus on metabolic activities inside the plant, which has led to an increase in root growth, soluble sugar production and cell wall resistance, and a decrease in electrolyte leakage. Therefore, the positive changes observed in different traits and indices due to the use of phosphorus increased the resistance of the Sirvan cultivar compared to Sivand under drought stress conditions. According to the results of phosphorus efficiency and some root morphological and physiobiochemical characteristics, Sirvan cultivar showed a good response to phosphorus fertilizer in modulating the effect of drought stress.

Background and Objective: Drought is one of the most widespread abiotic stresses which has a negative effect on the growth and yield of plants in most areas of the world. Drought stress reduces plant yield by decreasing the uptake of water and nutrients. The arid and semi-arid climate conditions of Iran have caused many problems in the production of plants, including wheat (Triticum aesivum L.). Phosphorus, as one of the essential nutritional elements for plants, can be effective in alleviating drought stress (Kang et al., 2014). In recent years, the use of plants and cultivars efficient in uptake nutrients, including phosphorus, as an appropriate strategy to increase crop yield in water-limited environments has been the focus of researchers. Phosphorous efficient cultivars are important due to their special physiological and morphological characteristics in drought stress conditions (Neji et al., 2019). Therefore, it is necessary to pay attention to the mechanism of efficient cultivars against drought stress for accurate fertilizer recommendations.

Methods: To evaluate Sirvan and Sivand wheat cultivars, in phosphorus uptake and efficiency and growth and development at different levels of moisture stress and phosphorus, a factorial experiment was performed based on a completely randomized design with three factors and three replications during the vegetative growth period in the greenhouse. The factors included phosphorus from Ca(H₂PO₄)₂·H₂O (0, and 25 mg P kg soil^-1), three moisture regimes including 50, 70 and 95% of field capacity (FC) and two spring wheat varieties (Triticum aesivum L.) of Sivand as a drought-sensitive variety and Sirvan as a drought-resistant variety.

Results: According to the results, it was observed that the application of phosphorus (25 mg kg^-1) was effective on the growth and development of the studied wheat cultivars under non-stress and drought stress conditions. Application of phosphorus increased shoot dry weight, phosphorus utilization efficiency, root length and area, and soluble sugars by 42, 61, 84, 47, and 66%, respectively, and decreased electrolyte leakage by 64% under drought stress conditions of 50%FC. Also, the phosphorus application of 25 mg kg^-1 under drought stress conditions of 50%FC increased the shoot dry weight of Sirvan variety by 75% compared to Sivand variety. This finding can be due to higher root growth and its characteristics (root area and cumulative length), uptake and utilization of soil phosphorus and physiobiochemical characteristics in Sirvan variety. The application of phosphorus with a positive effect on the growth and development of the Sirvan variety in the vegetative growth stage made it adapt to drought stress conditions.

Conclusions: The application of phosphorus at the level of 25 mg kg^-1 under drought stress conditions increased the shoot dry weight, root area and length, phosphorus uptake and efficiency, and soluble sugars and decreased electrolyte leakage. These changes were more noticeable in Sirvan variety. The use efficiency of phosphorus in the stages of vegetative growth can play an important role in determining the resistance of cultivars to drought stress. It is considered a good feature for a suitable fertilizer recommendation in order to improve the yield of agricultural products. Also, using the appropriate level of phosphorus can play an effective role in the efficiency of drought-resistant cultivars.

References:
1. Kang, L.y., Yue, S.C., Li, S.Q., 2014. Effects of phosphorus application in different soil layers on root growth, yield, and water-use efficiency of winter wheat grown under semi-arid conditions. J. Integr. Agric. 13(9), 2028–2039. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2095-3119(14)60751-6.
2. Neji, M., Kouas, S., Gandour, M., Aydi, S., Abdelly, C., 2019. Genetic variability of morpho-physiological response to phosphorus deficiency in Tunisian populations of Brachypodium hybridum. Plant Physiol. Biochem. 143, 246–256. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plaphy.2019.09.006.